Saturday, 21 January 2012

Selling Your Way to Your First Million


Understanding the Selling Market


 Before gearing up to sell, you have to understand one essential thing in selling – and that’s your potential market. Potential market is simply defined as the group of people who could be interested in the product or services that you are offering. These are the people who you will be selling your products to; and apparently, their roles are very important.
Whatever product you are advertising, there is only one thing to keep in mind: you have to know who your target market is. It is not a good suggestion to sell beauty creams and makeup in a car-racing magazine, would it? Well, not unless you want to utilize whatever media you can put your hands on. But still, doing that is an incredible idea.


Who Are Your Target Market? how to laung your product learn here. http://tiny.cc/wxj4s

           
    Setting Up and Realizing Your Goa

         Now, here is where all the hard work lies ahead. Well, let's omit the word "hard" there. Selling can be easy anyway, especially if you know what you are doing. To realize your goal as a salesperson, the first thing you have to do is to set it. What exactly do you want to achieve as one? Do you want to earn big bucks? Millions? Or do you want to be a sales supervisor then sales director? Maybe being the company's vice president for sales is such a good idea after all, don't you think?
            When it comes to setting goals, there is only one rule to remember - set a goal that is possible to reach. There's nothing wrong in focusing on an extravagant goal, like being a sales division head. But it won't happen overnight, especially if you just started your job yesterday. It is better to set small, short-term goals and go from there. Achieve all these small goals one at a time, one after another, and you will surely wake up one morning on top of your career and with loads of money in your bank account at that.
            Short-term goals are much easier to achieve. It takes lesser time and sometimes even lesser effort to accomplish a short-term goal. Short-term goals are mostly done in a matter of months, or even days. Let's apply this concept and take college as an example. In order for you to finish college, you schedule yourself to attend university fairs and seminars. Doing that is a short-term goal, a small goal. Finishing college, on the other hand, is the long-term goal or the bigger goal.
Most people incorrectly set big dreams with their big goals. That's perfectly fine. No problem with that. But several people who are doing this get tired of pursuing their dream; and eventually, they give up. They became too weary of failing because they do not understand nor realize all the complexities associated to achieving those colossal goals.
It is always preferable to begin with small goals before you head on to take big challenges and bigger dreams. Try splitting your big, long-term goals into several small but achievable short-term goals. When you look at your goals from that perspective, you will realize that your bigger goals become more attainable.
Let's use a definite example again. Say you like to become a millionaire through selling. Make that your ultimate goal. Under that, make several short-term goals significant to your current position. Give yourself a month doing your selling with a simple goal of being able to pay the bills. If you have successfully achieved that, proceed with the aim of earning enough to pay the bills plus a number of your luxuries, like a monthly out-of-town vacation or a shopping spree perhaps. After those, and if you are still doing well in your craft, continue with the next set of goals. Aim to buy a house or a new car. Then make enough money to spend most of the holidays abroad with your family. Proceed to saving a bundle for your retirement. Slowly, but surely, you will eventually find your bank account with savings of seven figures at least.
Now do your own goal-setting activity. List one ultimate goal and make at least 10 baby steps under it. And under each small goal, make several concrete steps to do on how you can achieve each goal. Then push yourself on achieving one goal after another. Don't skip any of your goals and you will surely be on the right track.

Honing Your Face-to-Face Selling Skills

            One way to realize your goal is to make sure that you sharpen your face-to-face selling skills. This is helpful if you have to do door-to-door selling, service sales, or customer service. To be an effective face-to-face seller, here are good tips you have to follow:
  1. Make sure you have all the sales material at hand.
Don't expect to make big sales if you are not prepared for everything. You have to always have the order forms, purchase orders, sales slips, selling materials, and specification sheets handy. Bring them wherever you go. Make sure you have extra copies of each in your car, your briefcase, desk, and counter. If you are always ready, you won't give your customer any room for second thoughts.
  1. Always stay well organized to make selling a breeze.
Being organized does not only mean you have all your selling materials when and where you need it. It also means you have everything all taken cared of – including the possible questions your customer may throw at you. You have to make sure that for the simplest and the most common of questions, you have the answers handy, either in the back of your mind or on a brochure. Fumbling around for papers and answers won't do you any good. Your customer might get impatient and change his mind about buying.
  1. Take advantage of the power of good testimonials.
Good customer service will tell you that you don't forget a customer right after every sale. Instead, you follow up their purchase with the offer of support to help them with anything about the product or to answer questions about its use and functionality. It is also a good time to ask for feedbacks as to whether they are satisfied with the sale, both regarding the commodity and the quality of support or customer service they received. You can even ask some of your all-too-pleased customers for good testimonials. More often than not, they will be very willing to vouch a good word or two about you, the product they bought, and the company that made it.
  1. Update your sales materials regularly.
If you are indeed using catalogs, visual aids, brochures, and leaflets, you have to make sure that they are all up-to-date and accurate. You customers are going to use the information contained in them to guide them with their purchase. They may even use the data you gave and compare it with your competitor's products. Now if you give them inaccurate data, you can expect either one of two results. The first result: your customer will choose other product over yours because what you have doesn't fair well when compared to others. This will likely happen if you haven't updated your materials with the innovations and improvements the manufacturer has made with the product you are offering. And the second result: your customer will buy your product, thinking yours is better than the others, only to find out they are fooled because of the inaccurate facts and figures placed on the brochure they took home with them. Either case, you will end up losing. On both counts, you lose a sale because the second customer is very likely to request for a refund.
  1.  Talk to your customer and involve them in every moment of the pre-sale, but stop talking when he has made the decision to buy.
Again, don't give your customer any second to reconsider buying. Before he makes up his mind about buying a certain product, continue talking to the customer. Good conversation skill is what every good salesperson possesses. Don't put it into waste. Use it all the time. Besides, customers can assess right there and then if you are genuinely willing to help them make a good purchase or if you just there to get their money. But after they made the decision to buy, stop talking about that particular product. Remember, they can always change their mind, walk out the store, and leave you dumbfounded.  The smart thing to do is ask them if they would be interested in an “advanced” version of the product (if any) or if they would like a complimentary product to go with the sale (Example: Would you like fries or sundae with that meal?).
  1. Provide your customer only with the best possible product and sales deal.
A good salesperson does not think of what he can get out of each sale he makes. He also thinks about the person on the other end of the bargain. A salesperson should strive to fully understand what his customer wants. He has to help him make an informed decision among his legitimate options. Selling is also about caring and trust. This is the primary reason why customers keep coming back.
  1. Motivate your customer to act.
Well, don't just stand there talking to your customer about the product's benefit like a broken record. Your constant pitch will just irritate your customer. Instead, drive them to buy. Make them understand that it is a lot better to own the product's benefits rather than just to hear about it. Goad them to act. Have them complete the sale.
  1. Attempt to sell related products or services to satisfied customers.
A happy customer may be all too willing to buy other products. For example, if you are selling designer clothes to prospects and at the end, they did buy one of your products, try to sell them designer shoes and bags to match. They may not buy right away, but it is such a great opportunity to present them other products that compliment the item they’ve purchased. You will then have an active list of customers in the near future.
  1. Reach out to your most likely clients and get referrals.
After understanding your target market, you should know exactly the type of people that will buy what you are selling. Get to meet them and sell to them aggressively. However the meeting goes, either you got a sale or not, get referrals. They will surely have other friends in the same field that may be willing to buy. Always make every meeting worth it, even if you did not strike a deal at all.
  1. Give your customers subsequent sales support.
Sales support comes in various forms. It could be as simple as a telephone inquiry or as complex as a home service. Either the case or whether it is your job or not, offer assistance when it is asked of you. The least you can do is to direct them to the right support group to handle their concerns. If there is no such group, provide them help as much as your company policies can allow. Always keep in mind that one unhappy customer can create more damage than ten happy customers can repair.

Using Effective Sales Tools to Realize Your Goal
            Today, there are a lot of tools and avenues to make yourself known and reach to as much customers as you can. These tools are essential in your business because they can hoist you up the sales ladder and lead you to your first million.

The Telephone

            The telephone is a very important business tool. In fact, it is widely used right now by both small-scale businesses to large corporate empires. Call centers are setup everywhere, even carried offshore to maximize cost and efficiency. Why? It's because the telephone is very powerful. You can inquire a product through phone, place and confirm orders, and collect payment through this device. As a salesperson, you can reach your possible customers without leaving your home or office. You can talk to them at their most convenient time, without worrying about traveling, what to wear, and where to meet up. All you have to do is to press a few numbers on the keypad, wait for the person to answer on the other end of the line, and you have a deal brewing right under your nose.

Local Community Groups

            To realize your goal much faster than expected, you have to first reach the local groups with which they belong. It is advisable that you become known in the local community you would like to penetrate first. You have to build your reputation well, so to speak. And you will benefit most if you use the power of the word of mouth. If everything goes well, you might not have to go to your customer at all. They would be coming to you instead.

Advertising and Publicity

            Publicity will take you miles closer to your targets. Publicity includes the tri-media, as it is more known today. The newspapers and other printed materials, the television stations, and the radio airwaves are the things that corresponds to publicity. Spots for these may not come free, but it is worth the investment, especially if you get to make your product or service known to the masses. If you are lucky, you might just come across some of them at no cost at all. Whichever the case, you have to make sure that you choose the one that reaches your most probable customers. Don't be too overeager and buy a television commercial spot right away only to find out that you've place your ads for car paints on a fashion TV show, which does not jive at all.

Direct Mail

            There had been a time when direct mail is a breakthrough in mass marketing. Direct mail straightforwardly informs your customers of your sales activities and promotional offers that come with it. Direct mail connects you to the very people you want to contact. It fixes in a very personal level what your customer cannot easily resist.

Sales Promotional Materials

            These are your massively produced paraphernalia, usually paperwork. Your brochures, leaflets, and inserts are what compose this category. If you want to reach as many audiences as possible without caring so much for pre-qualifying, this is the way to go. Print out thousands of leaflets and scatter them all over town. Call the local newspaper dealer and strike a deal with them, putting your inserts to all periodicals for a certain fee.
Of the three, brochures are quite different. Some brochures are printed on glossy paper and usually come colored. You don't want to put these to waste by just giving it to somebody who is not at all interested. In essence, you have to give this only to the people who are opting to buy or are most likely to buy.

The Internet

            Currently, there is no marketing tool that is as powerful as the Internet. The Internet is an avenue for everything. And it is so popular even kids know how to use it. The Internet is where everybody virtually meets. If you want to market your products to the rest of the world, you can use the Internet. And it is the most inexpensive way to do it. Today, everything can be done online. You can advertise, sell your product, and receive payment, all without leaving the comforts of your home or office. All you need is some knowledge of how e-commerce and internet marketing works, and get ready to be swept away by voluminous orders.

The Qualities of an Excellent Salesperson

Being a salesperson should be easy. That is, if you have all the qualities of a good salesperson in you. However you do your job, either face-to-face, over the telephone, or through the Internet, it is important that you posses all these qualities. Once you do, sales and commissions will just keep on pouring in and you will need an extra hand fulfilling orders. 
You can get more information by clicking the link below. http://tiny.cc/2ne9r

Neatness and Presentability

            For a salesperson, image is everything. It is true that before you get to sell anything, you always have to sell yourself first. And that means you should be highly likeable before you get somebody to like your products. Giving your possible customers a bad impression of you won't help at all. It would help your competitors though, because it takes you out of the picture.
            You won't always know your customers personally. In fact, you will be meeting a lot of them, if not all of them, only once in your life. And that means you will be approaching them and talking to them as a total stranger. In this case, they might be scrutinizing you in an attempt to judge what kind of a person you are. And they might do that mostly based on your looks alone.
            It is therefore important that you look neat and presentable all the time. Your aura and your physical image tell a lot about who you are and the company you represent. People do not like to deal with somebody they do not feel comfortable with. Unruly hair and dirty teeth could make you lose a sale. Don't take the risk. Invest in your appearance. But this doesn’t mean you have to buy and wear expensive suits all the time. Good grooming will make you stand out even if your clothes are old. Just make sure they are well kept and you should be fine.
Professionalism
            Professionalism is how you do things right. For starters, you should not be irritating. Certain habits or conducts annoy some people. If you have a nasty habit like fidgeting with your fingers, cutting somebody's sentence off, playing with your pen, or talking too fast, you have to do your best to eliminate it. As a rule of thumb, any habit that you think may annoy somebody else has to go – and do it in any way possible. If you have to undergo therapies to get rid of it, do it. Much of your career depends on it. Keep in mind that the selling career entails a person-to-person contact. Because of that, you have to do everything to create a good impression and comfortable air between you and your customer.
Good Listening Skills
            More than anything, a customer would like to be heard and understood, sometimes at all costs. To be a good salesperson, you have to develop your ability to listen, even to the words left unsaid. Let your customer talk. After all, they come to you because they want something. Hear them out and show them that you perfectly understood what they are trying to convey. You may just uncover a behavior or attitude that can propel you to make a sale. If you fail to do so the first time, don't hesitate to ask them again. This will show that you are concerned about what they are saying and you don't want to miss a detail. But don't do it many times in a conversation; or else, the customer will assume that you are not paying attention.
Sensitivity
            Always put yourself in your customer's shoes. This is the only way you can feel what it is that concerns them and what they are trying to make you comprehend. Doing so will also ensure that you are on the right ground when it comes to dealing with people. Some salespeople become too overeager to collect the commissions they would get out of every sale that they forget to treat their customer with outmost care and attention. Actually, this is the gravest mistake you can make as a salesperson. The moment you regard your customers as one-time deals is the moment you can say goodbye to your career. With that attitude, even your most loyal clients will break out and leave you hanging by a thin line eventually.

Enthusiasm

            Enthusiasm is infectious. If you’re excited about your product and the benefit it can give, your customers would soon follow suit. They would see your product in a different way, enough to complete a sale. Good salespeople are jovial and passionate about their craft. You should develop these qualities right at the start of your career.

Knowledge

            This doesn't mean that you necessarily need to have above average comprehension skills to start with. It means being smart with the good ability to grasp data. When a good salesperson sells his product, he knows all its prime qualities by heart. He makes it a point that he has the answer to the most asked- about question concerning the product he is selling at the back of his mind. He does not grope around looking for answers when somebody pops them up. Instead, he comes prepared with a smart answer all the time.

Integrity

            Integrity means honesty and doing the right things even when somebody is not looking at you. Many customers want to stay clear of a deceitful salesperson. That is the reason why they size salespeople up before they attempt to buy or even before asking anything about the product. Customers want to know exactly how the product works, without any tall lies and truth bending. They only want to deal with a straight, honest salesperson.

Courtesy

            Courtesy is something everybody appreciates. Customers definitely want to be treated like kings. They may bombard you with questions before they decide to buy, or they can try all your products before selecting the one right for them. Customers have varying tastes and styles. As a salesperson, part of your job is to conform to all their eccentricities. You might need to practice patience and be good-natured. Always remember that the most likeable salesperson always gets the job done.

Persuasiveness

            All salespeople are required to be persuasive. They should be able to effectively convince their customers about the beauty of the product they are selling within appropriate levels.  They should not drop at every block the customer throws at them. Instead, they should look at it as a challenge that they have to overcome. Most highly successful salespeople are even looking forward to all these challenges. They feel triumphant with every sale if they are able to prevail over the customer's negativities. This is something that adds excitement and stimulation to their job.
 

Handling Objections


A lot of people assume that selling is not easy. And that's because of the numerous objections potential customers will shoot at you whenever you attempt to contact or talk to them with the intention of starting a sale. Some objections may be given as the sale presentation or sales pitch is in progress. But little do they know that some of these objections, like the price of the product or the service that comes with it, could very well be an indication of a customer’s interest in buying.
If you think about it, your customers won't object about how high your product's price is if they have not really considered the possibility of owning it. Therefore, you must take on all their objections accordingly, and convert them to your benefit. Over time, different new techniques are being developed to handle the customer's every single objection. The ones listed below are the most effective ways as practiced by thriving salespeople.
The Boomerang Technique
Renaming the Objections
Show The Customers The Bigger Picture
Reframing the Objection
The Conditional Closing Technique
Repulsing the Objection
The Curious Salesperson Technique
Anticipating the Objection
Sidetracking the Objection
Objection Bargaining
The Use of Empathy
The Use of Humor
Selling and Presenting Your Product
Almost all customers would agree in saying that the product’s presentation has a lot to do with their reasons for buying. They like a product that is very presentable, both in its overall appearance and its packaging. Therefore, no matter how good your product is, if it is not appealing to the eye, it is not going to have market appeal. Appeal to your customer’s aesthetic preferences. A lot of companies are investing so much just to improve their product design. Most of the time, a simple change in the packaging layout would translate to millions of sales. Good enough is not enough. Always settle for the best possible product appearance and packaging.
Here are the four basic principles of how your overall product presentation should look like:
1.    It should be attention grabbing.
2.    It should be crafted to build customer’s interest in the product.
3.    It should arouse the customer’s desire to own the product.
4.    It should be enough to goad the customers to action.
When it comes to presentation, your main point of interest is what pleases the eye. While it is true that beauty is in the eye of the beholder, all you really have to follow is to appeal to the general concept of beauty. Always stick to the conventional assumption of beauty and you would never go wrong.
 How to Attract Your Customer’s Attention
How to Build Your Customer’s Interest  find out here http://tiny.cc/cz7xy
How to Arouse Your Customer’s Desire
     1.    Vision
2.    Hearing
3.    The Sense of Smell
4.    The Sense of Taste
5.    The Sense of Touch
How to Goad Your Customers into Action
            Now this is the meat of the matter. When we are talking about action, we mean buying. And buying is the main goal of every sales deal. It is what every salesperson aims to get. The million-dollar question comes into surface: How then, can you make a customer buy?
            After going through the steps listed in this book, you should have learned about product presentation, quality, appeal, customer’s objections, and the salesman qualities. All these are taught with only one intention – that you successfully get into your customers’ heads and goad them into action.
            Selling is a very psychological thing. A good product won’t necessarily sell without an equally good salesperson behind it. Try it. Let's do some role-playing. Get your products on the frontline and act not as an enthusiastic salesperson but as an indifferent vendor. Act like somebody who gets paid by the hour without commissions. That means you will get your salary after working hours no matter how few or how many items you have sold. See if you are going to achieve your day’s goal.
            Now act like a very aggressive salesperson and take what you think is your worst product. Maybe for research, you can even select a brand or a commodity that you think is a big junk. Sell it passionately, following everything taught in this report. See if you had sold more products acting like this compared to when you are acting like the uninterested salesperson.
            This is the first point you have to know. Selling is not entirely about your product. Your product won’t sell on its own. That is the very reason why your boss hired you in the first place. He knows it. You should know it too. Be reminded of this one thing:  Before you can sell anything, you have to sell yourself first. This is why you are taught the qualities of a good salesperson earlier. The moment you speak to your customer about your product is the moment your customer maybe doing his best trying to trust you. If he finds that very hard to do, you are in big trouble.
            The second point: Not all customers buy impulsively. You might be lucky to meet more than one compulsive customer in a day. So don’t gripe if the customer lets you talk for five whole hours only to leave the store without making a single purchase. This happens; and it does quite often, actually. So you have to know your plan of attack each time you face your customer. If he is a new customer, don’t come on too strong. Again, customers do not like to be pushed around and feel ensnared.
            The third point: Keep your customer interested. Getting your customer’s attention is not enough. You have to keep the water flowing, so to speak. You have to capture their interest and sustain it. But do it in such a way that it doesn’t look as though you are going to some extreme heights just to sell to them. Customers know when you are making conversation and when you are making a sales pitch for them to buy. It is your job to keep them interested. And when their interest is at its peak, move in to close the deal. That should be the time when they are more than willing to take out their wallets right then and make the purchase.
            The last and main point: Let your customer know your intentions. Make it clear to them that you wanted them to buy your product, get an insurance plan, to sign up for a loan, to purchase a warranty card, or anything else you might want them to do. Calling them to action is not enough. They have to know what the real action is, what they are supposed to do. And be prepared for that. Don’t be too engrossed in your sales pitch that you are forgetting little details (like the customer has to have several identification cards to go with the purchase or other trivial things like that). Assess your customer while you are talking to them. Determine what they need to do and make them want to do it. Now that's the best salesperson in action!
To guide you further in your selling, here are four almost magical selling techniques that you can use to your advantage:
         a. The Reciprocity Technique
    b.The Contrast Technique
    c.The Herd Technique
    d.The Consistency Technique1.    Timing is important.
2.    Learn the proper timing in closing the deal.
3.    Bluffing sometimes work.
4.    Know what to say after they made the decision to buy.
5.    Not all sales deals lead to a close.
 The Different Deal Closing Techniques
            Closing the deal means taking the customer into the stage of commitment. This is where they actually buy – where they put out their hard earned and the not-so-hard earned cash for that matter, to buy your products. Therefore, to ensure you of a tightly sealed deal, here are some closing techniques you can take advantage of:
Using the Power of Assumption Technique
Using a Testimonial to Close the Deal
The First-Hand Experience Technique
Showing them The Better End of The Deal Closing Technique
Using the Emotions Technique
Using the Short-Term Offer Technique
Focus on the Quality Technique
            Steps to An Effective Closing You can get more information by clicking the link below. http://tiny.cc/2ne9r
. 1.    Deliver your closing.
2.    Pause for a few seconds.
3.    Observe your customer's emotions.
4.    Finish the sale.
 5.    Thank the customer.
Conclusion
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Explaining the Gender Difference in Depressive Symptoms


Abstract

It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
 http://tiny.cc/wuyom


Women experience depression more often than men, whether depression is indexed by levels of depressive symptoms or by diagnosed unipolar depressive disorders (Kessler, McGonagle, Swartz, Blazer, & Nelson, 1993;Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990, 1995Weissman & Klerman, 1977). This gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to emerge in early adolescence and then remains throughout the adult life span (Kessler et al., 1993Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).

Although the existence of a gender difference in depressive symptoms is well established, the reasons for this gender difference are not clear (McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo, 1990Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987, 1990, 1995). A variety of social and personality explanations for women's greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms have been offered. The relationships among the social and personality factors leading to more depression in women have not been explored. Instead, most of these factors have been tested separately, with the other factors being ignored. In the study reported here, we examined how social conditions and personality characteristics affect each other and contribute to the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Learn more here http://tiny.cc/wuyom

Role of Environment in the Gender Difference in Depressive Symptoms

Behavioral and feminist theories of women's greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms compared with that of men generally attribute this vulnerability to the negative consequences of women's lower social status and power (Bandura, 1986Miller, 1976Radloff, 1975Seligman, 1975). Because of this lower status and power, women experience more negative events and have less control over important areas of their lives than men. A host of specific negative life events or circumstances have been proposed to play a role in the greater vulnerability to depression of women than of men (for reviews, see McGrath et al., 1990, and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990). Some of the most frequently cited include work overload and unequal power and status in heterosexual relationships.

Although women may make less money than men, they appear to work more hours per week than men when all the roles that they perform are considered. Women often work full time in the paid workforce and do nearly all the child care and domestic work of the home (Barnett, Brennan, & Marshall, 1994Crosby, 1982). In addition, women are increasingly “sandwiched” between caring for young children and caring for sick and older family members. This work overload is proposed to contribute to a sense of burnout and general distress, including depressive symptoms, in women (Gove & Tudor, 1973Hobfoll, 1991McIntosh, Keywell, Reifman, & Ellsworth, 1994).

Another chronic strain for women may be that they do not feel valued for who they are or for their roles in their partnerships and families (Jack, 1991Miller, 1976). They may “silence” their opinions and desires in favor of keeping a positive emotional tone in their relationships (Helgeson, 1994Jack, 1991). When they do try to voice their opinions and desires, they may feel unappreciated or unheard.

How would these negative circumstances lead to depression in women? Behavioral and cognitive theories of depression have suggested that a chronic lack of control over their environment leads people to develop a generalized expectation that they cannot control events; this situation then leads to the symptoms of depression—lowered motivation, passivity, self-esteem loss, and the inability to see opportunities to control the environment (Bandura, 1977Lewinsohn, Hoberman, Teri, & Hautzinger, 1985Seligman, 1975). The generalized expectation of no control has been labeled learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975), low self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977), and low mastery (Dweck, 1975Pearlin & Schooler, 1978).

In keeping with feminist theories, Nolen-Hoeksema (1987, 1991) has argued that women's lack of social power also contributes to their tendency to engage in rumination more than men when distressed. Rumination involves passively and repetitively focusing on one's symptoms of distress (“I'm so tired,” “I'm so unmotivated”) and on the meanings and consequences of the distress (“What's wrong with my life” “My boss is going to get annoyed if I keep missing deadlines”). Both questionnaire studies and laboratory studies have found that women are more likely than men to ruminate and focus on emotion when sad or depressed (cf. Butler & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1994,Nolen-Hoeksema, Morrow, & Fredrickson, 1993, and Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994). Women may ruminate more because they are searching for ways in which they can control their environment and their distress but do not feel efficacious about exerting that control and thus remain stuck in rumination. In turn, a number of laboratory and field studies have shown that people who engage in rumination when distressed show longer and more severe periods of depressive symptoms and are more likely to develop full depressive disorders than those who do not engage in rumination (Alloy & Abramson, 1997Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1993Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994).

In sum, several theories suggest that the greater experience of negative life events of women than of men may lead both to low mastery and to rumination; these, in turn, contribute to more depression in women than in men. Free information http://tiny.cc/wuyom
Effects of Mastery and Rumination on Stressful Experiences

Just as the environment can shape personality, personality factors can influence individuals' environments (Caspi, in pressMagnusson, 1990Sameroff, 1983). Thus, less mastery and more rumination may contribute to more stressful experiences in women's lives. Because women do not believe that they have control over their lives, they may not exert the control that they do have, leading to more negative life events (Bandura, 1986;Seligman, 1975). For example, they may not seek better jobs or remove themselves from inequitable and stressful partnerships.

Rumination may also contribute to more stress over time. Previous research has shown that rumination can interfere with problem solving (cf. Lyubomirsky, Caldwell, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998, and Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995). Thus, women's greater tendency to ruminate compared with that of men may impede women from solving their current problems and cause them to accumulate new problems. Rumination also contributes to increasingly negative thinking and thus may be a cause of low mastery (Lyubomirsky et al., 1998Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995Pyszczynski & Greenberg, 1987).

Summary of Modeling Results

In summary, tests of the gender effects-only model showed that women reported more chronic strain and rumination, less mastery, and more depressive symptoms at Time 1 and that gender was also a significant predictor of more chronic strain, rumination, and depressive symptoms at Time 2, after controlling for Time 1 measures of these variables. Tests of the feedback effects model showed that (a) rumination predicted more chronic strain over time, (b) chronic strain predicted more rumination over time, (c) mastery predicted more rumination over time, and (d) Time 2 mastery was predicted only by Time 1 mastery. Tests of the depression effects model showed that depressive symptoms at Time 1 predicted more rumination and less mastery over time but did not predict chronic strain. Both the feedback effects model and the depression effects model showed that (a) the gender difference in depressive symptoms was mediated by rumination, mastery, and chronic strain, (b) chronic strain appeared to have only indirect effects on depressive symptoms mediated through rumination, and (c) both rumination and mastery had direct effects on depressive symptoms. Finally, tests of the interaction effects model showed that rumination consistently amplified the effects of mastery on depressive symptoms at both Time 1 and Time 2 and that the interaction between rumination and chronic strain predicted significant variance in depressive symptoms at Time 2 but not Time 1. Overall, the model that fit the data best was the depression effects model, possibly because it was the most saturated model.
Discussion

The gender difference in depression is one of the most robust phenomena in epidemiology. Women are more prone to depression than men in many countries, cultures, and ethnicities (McGrath et al., 1990Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990Weissman & Klerman, 1977). The robustness of this phenomenon has led some theorists to suggest that it may have a biological basis, although little evidence for a biological basis has been found (seeNolen-Hoeksema, 1990, for a review). The results of this study suggest that the robustness of the gender difference in depression may be due to the relationships among chronic strain, rumination, mastery, and depression, which keep some women caught in a cycle of passivity and despair.

Women reported more chronic strain, a greater tendency to ruminate, and a lower sense of mastery than men. These gender differences in social and personality variables fully mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Moreover, chronic strain, rumination, and mastery appeared to contribute to each other. Rumination consistently amplified the effects of mastery on depressive symptoms: Low mastery was more strongly associated with depressive symptoms among high ruminators than among low ruminators. Further, low mastery at Time 1 predicted more rumination at Time 2, after controlling for rumination at Time 1. Thus, ruminators suffered more depressive symptoms when they had low mastery and, in turn, low mastery contributed to more rumination over time.
Rumination also amplified the effects of chronic strain on depressive symptoms at one of the testing sessions. The more consistent relationship between chronic strain and rumination, however, was a reciprocal effect: More chronic strain predicted more rumination over time, and more rumination predicted more chronic strain over time. Below we discuss the effects of each of the major variables in this study and the implications of our results.
Effects of Chronic Strain

The chronic strains reported by many women in this study were the grinding annoyances and burdens that come with women's lower social power. Women carried a greater load of the housework and child care and more of the strain of parenting than men. Women felt less affirmed and appreciated by their partners than men. There are doubtless other strains not included in our measure but experienced more often by women than by men, such as sexual harassment and the threat of violence, that also contribute to women's burden (McIntosh et al., 1994). Still, our measure of strains was correlated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, suggesting that these strains do contribute to women's greater vulnerability to depressive symptoms compared with men's.

The contribution of chronic strain to the gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to be mediated through rumination, however. That is, greater chronic strain was associated with a greater tendency to ruminate in both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. However, there were no direct effects of chronic strain on depressive symptoms when rumination was included in the longitudinal analyses.7 This result suggests that rumination is the intrapersonal consequence of chronic strain and the link between strain and depressive symptoms.

Why would chronic strains lead to more rumination in women? These grinding burdens may convince some women that there is little that they can do to control their lives; this feeling may then contribute to rumination. However, we suspect that most women (and men) under chronic strain hold out some hope that there is something that they can do to improve their situation and thus do not become fully hopeless and helpless (cf.Garber, Miller, & Abramson, 1980, and Wortman & Brehm, 1975). Instead, they search for some understanding of why their lives are not going as they wish, why they feel frustrated and distressed so much of the time, what they can do to convince their partners to share in the work of the home and child care (happily), and how they might be better appreciated by their partners and families. This searching may be manifested as the rumination that we saw more often in women than in men. Unfortunately, the answers to the questions that women ask themselves in their ruminations are not easy. Many women who, by objective standards, are in inequitable and nonnurturing relationships or are being directly discriminated against in the workplace do not—perhaps cannot—acknowledge that they are being victimized (Crosby, 1982). Even when they acknowledge their victimization, women often do not have the resources to break away from that victimization (Belle, 1982). If a woman does not want to break away from an inequitable relationship but wants to improve that relationship, the attitudes of the partner and the patterns of exchange between her and the partner, which may be entrenched, must be changed. Thus, many women under chronic strain may retain a moderate sense of mastery but may ruminate about the causes of their situation, their feelings about the situation, and what they should do about it. This rumination then contributes to depressive symptoms.

Many, perhaps most, women bear up under chronic strain remarkably well. The relatively small correlations between chronic strain and the other variables suggest that many women who were under chronic strain did not become ruminative, lose faith in their ability to control their lives, or develop depressive symptoms. How do women do this? Some women may accept strains as “the way things are” and find ways to live with them rather than ruminating about them. They may also shift their attention to aspects of their lives that they can control, thus maintaining a general sense of control over their lives (cf. Crosby, 1982, and Linville, 1987). Women may support each other through these strains, reducing the impact of strains on control beliefs, rumination, and depressive symptoms. In addition, having a positive, gratifying experience in one role, such as at work, may offset the impact of strain in other roles, such as the family, for many women (Barnett & Baruch, 1985Barnett, Marshall, & Singer, 1992Crosby, 1987Kandel, Davies, & Raveis, 1985Repetti & Crosby, 1984Stewart & Malley, 1987).

Effects of Rumination

Rumination had a direct effect on depressive symptoms, as it has in previous studies (Nolen-Hoeksema & Larson, 1999Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1993Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994). The mechanisms by which rumination exacerbates and maintains depressive symptoms may be numerous. Laboratory studies have shown that people induced to ruminate when in a depressed mood generate more negative memories from the past, are more pessimistic in their evaluations of hypothetical and real events in the present, and are more fatalistic about the future (Lyubomirsky et al., 1998Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993, 1995). In turn, these negative cognitions may contribute to and prolong depressive symptoms directly or indirectly by impairing problem solving (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995). In addition, a field study suggested that people who ruminate may lose social support, perhaps because they continue to ruminate about their distress instead of taking action to overcome it and by doing so alienate others (Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 1999); in that study, low social support was associated with elevated depressive symptoms over time.

In this study, people who were more prone to ruminate evidenced more chronic strain over time. Rumination may maintain chronic strain because it drains people of the motivation, persistence, and problem-solving skills to change their situations. Laboratory studies have shown that people induced to ruminate when distressed are less willing to engage in activities that they can acknowledge might make them feel better and generate lower-quality solutions to complex interpersonal problems (Lyubomirsky et al., 1998Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993, 1995). Failing to do what one can to overcome stressful situations, such as an unfulfilling marriage or an inequitable distribution of labor at home, perpetuates these situations.

Conclusions

The results of this study suggest that women carry a triad of vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms compared to men: more chronic strain, a greater tendency to ruminate when distressed, and a lower sense of their mastery over their lives. In turn, these variables contribute to each other. So what is a depressed woman, under chronic strain and ruminating or lacking a belief that she can control her life, to do? Helping women achieve a greater sense of control over their circumstances and engage in problem solving rather than ruminating should be useful. Changing the social circumstances that many women face so that they do not have so much to ruminate about is equally important. Learn more now, Click this link http://tiny.cc/wuyom